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in: Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures, Suad Joseph, Editor, Brill, Leiden , Leiden, pp.187-188, 2009
The revolutionary movements in Turkey can be traced back to the late Ottoman period, to the Young Turks (Hanioğlu 1995) who eventually came to power in the Second Constitutional Period (1908), and to other groups, some of them socialist, which were active but never dominant within the state structure. Prior to the Turkish Republic, modernizing movements sought to accomplish social transformation in the Ottoman state.